Windows 10 activation lost after hardware change – Troubleshooter didn’t detect my linked device

I already tried that, but when I click "See other devices linked to your Microsoft account" (translated from the Czech Windows UI; the wording may differ slightly in the English version), the only message I get is:

"We can't reactivate Windows on any of your devices." (again, translated from Czech, so the exact English wording may be different).

There is no list of devices, no option to select my previous PC, and no recovery wizard.

Unfortunately, I've already exhausted all the available options. The Activation Troubleshooter couldn't help, the phone support has been discontinued, and Microsoft chat support told me they can't handle activation issues like this and referred me to this forum.

As far as I can tell, I followed all the required steps correctly. My digital license was linked to my Microsoft account before the hardware change, yet there seems to be no way to reactivate Windows.

I'm now stuck in a catch-22: I can't upgrade to Windows 11 because my old hardware isn't supported, but I also can't replace the hardware because Windows activation no longer works. Is there any other way to resolve this?