Is there a way in Intune to troubleshoot apps or profiles installation on a single device?

With Configuration Profiles it is still simple:

You can create your own group that you add as excluded to a Configuration Profile. Even if a member in this group is also in the Included group, the assignment will be removed.

Apps

Reinstallation of apps is not so easy if you work with dynamic groups and do not want to remove this assignment from the group. My recommendation is to work with normal groups and fill them via automation. Then you are much more flexible with the assignments of apps and configuration profiles. You can easily add and remove individual computers/users

But a possible solution for apps is that you add a unistall group to required and avialable installation and if you click on Group Mode you can turn Include into Exclude. Then you add the same group to the unistallation as included. Then you add the devices to this group.

When the uninstallation is done you can remove the device from this group again and the app will be install again. It is not really nice but it works.

A other possible workaround would be the following, but I can't recommend it:

You can flag the device somehow, e.g. via the device category, a prefix in the name, .... and build a filter from it that contains the flag. This filter you can add at the app installation as excluded filter and at the uninstallation as include filter. When the uninstallation is done you can remove the flag again and the app will be reinstalled.